René Descartes Proofs of Gods Existence

Renà © Descartes (1596-1650) Proofs of Gods Existence is a series of arguments that he posits in his 1641 treatise (formal philosophical observation) Meditations on First Philosophy, first appearing in Meditation III. of God: that He exists. and discussed in more depth in Meditation V: Of the essence of material things, and, again, of God, that He exists. Descartes  is known for these original arguments that hope to prove Gods existence, but later philosophers have often critiqued his proofs as being too narrow and relying on a very suspect premise (Hobbes) that an image of God exists within mankind. In any case, understanding them is essential to understanding Descartes later work Principles of Philosophy (1644) and his Theory of Ideas. The structure of Meditations on First Philosophy — whos translated subtitle reads in which the existence of God and the immortality of the soul are demonstrated — is fairly straightforward. It begins with a letter of dedication to The Sacred Faculty of Theology in Paris, where he submitted it originally in 1641, a preface to the reader, and finally a synopsis of the six meditations that would follow. The rest of the treatise is meant to be read as if each Meditation takes place a day after the one prior. Dedication and Preface In the dedication, Descartes  implores the University of Paris (Sacred Faculty of Theology) to protect and keep his treatise and posit the method he hopes to ascribe to assert the claim of Gods existence philosophically rather than theologically. In order to do this, Descartes  posits he must make an argument that avoids critics accusations that the proof relies on circular reasoning. In proving the existence of God from a philosophical level, he would be able to appeal to non-believers as well. The other half of the method relies on his ability to demonstrate that man is sufficient to discover God on his own, which is indicated in the Bible and other such religious scriptures as well. Fundaments of the Argument In preparation of the main claim, Descartes discerns thoughts could be divided into three kinds of operations of thought: will, passions and judgment. The first two cannot be said to be true or false, as they do not pretend to represent the way things are. Only among judgments, then, can we find those sorts of thoughts representing something as existing outside of us. Descartes examines his thoughts again to discover which are components of judgment, narrowing his ideas into three types: innate, adventitious (coming from the outside) and fictional (produced internally). Now, adventitious ideas could have been created by Descartes himself. Although they do not depend on his will, he might have a faculty producing them, like the faculty that produces dreams. That is, of those ideas that are adventitious, it might be that we produce them even if we do not do so willingly, as it happens when we are dreaming. Fictional ideas, too, could have clearly been created by Descartes himself. For Descartes, all ideas had a formal and objective reality and consisted of three  metaphysical principles. The first, nothing comes  from nothing, holds that in order for something to exist, something else must have created it. The second holds very much the same concept around formal versus objective reality, stating that more cannot come from less. However, the third principle states that more objective reality cannot come from less formal reality, limiting the objectivity of the self  from affecting the formal reality of others Finally, he posits that there is a hierarchy of beings that can be divided into four categories: material bodies, humans, angels, and God. The only perfect being, in this hierarchy, is God with angels being of pure spirit yet imperfect, humans being a mix of material bodies and spirit, which are imperfect, and material bodies, which are simply called imperfect. Proof of Gods Existence With those preliminary theses at hand, Descartes dives into examining the philosophical possibility of Gods existence in his Third Meditation. He breaks this evidence down into two umbrella categories, called proofs, whose logic is relatively easy to follow. In the first proof, Descartes argues that, by evidence,  he is an imperfect being who has an objective reality including the notion that perfection exists and therefore has a distinct idea of a perfect being (God, for example). Further, Descartes realizes that he is less formally real than the objective reality of perfection and therefore there has to be a perfect being existing formally from whom his innate idea of a perfect being derives wherein he could have created the ideas of all substances, but not the one of God. The second proof then goes on to question who it is then that keeps him — having an idea of a perfect being — in existence, eliminating the possibility that he himself would be able to do. He proves this by saying that he would owe it to himself, if he were his own existence maker, to have given himself all sorts of perfections. The very fact that he is not perfect means he would not bear his own existence. Similarly, his parents, who are also imperfect beings, could not be the cause of his existence since they could not have created the idea of perfection within him. That leaves only a perfect being, God, that would have had to exist to create and be constantly recreating him.   Essentially, Descartes proofs  rely on the belief that by existing, and being born an imperfect being (but with a soul or spirit), one must, therefore, accept that something of more formal reality than ourselves must have created us. Basically, because we exist and are able to think ideas, something must have created us.

The Problem Of The War On Drugs - 1638 Words

Many cities in America are facing sluggish economic recovery, stagnant or failing wages among the lowest-income earners and budget constraints for social welfare programs (1)resulting in more than 46.7 million people in poverty. Poverty in America, and the violence and crime that stems from it helps sustain the most prosperous and corrupt industry of them all, prisons. Most people assume the â€Å"War on Drugs† was launched in response to the crisis cause by crack-cocaine in inner city neighborhoods. This view supports that racial disparities in drug convictions and sentences, as well as the rapid explosion of the prison population, reflect nothing more than the government’s zealous efforts to address rampant drug crime in poor, minority neighborhoods. This view while understandable, given the sensational media coverage of crack in the 1980’s and 1990’s, is simply wrong. In fact, the war on drugs began at a time when illegal drug use was on the decline. However, during this time period, a war was declared, causing arrest and convictions for drug offenses to skyrocket, especially amongst people of color. The War on Drugs plays a major part in the incarceration of African-Americans. In the â€Å"New Jim Crow† reading the (3) CIA admits to helping smuggle contrabands into communities heavily populated by people of color in order to disrupt and immobilize African-American movements. Crack and heroin were the most popular drugs smuggled into these communities due to their highlyShow MoreRelatedThe War On Drugs And America s Drug Problem1878 Words   |  8 PagesSpitz D Block 5/19/2016 The War on Drugs Based on the success and failures of the drug policies of the past, what is the best strategy for the United States to implement to help America’s drug problem? Throughout time, United States drug policy has shifted dramatically. 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Student Debt in College Free Essays

1 name Professor English date To Debt or Not to Debt: Why College is Worth the Investment When most people think about college they generally have the same mind set. You are taught from a young age that college is the only way to go but is that true? With recent tuition risings and the â€Å"American dream† seeming to vanish, college doesn’t seem to be worth its value anymore. Others believe that its college or you will be working at a fast food joint for the rest of your life. We will write a custom essay sample on Student Debt in College or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most people in-between believe that money is the determining factor but with the amount of options should people even worry about this? Even though college might seem like a stretch with tuition rising, college is something more people should take part in because there are so many answers to get past the money and just enjoy the full college experience. For most students applying for colleges is all they have thought about since starting kindergarten. For others it’s been a lifelong dread about how do they even begin to try and 2 afford it essay writers online. With all the horror stories about finishing college with such enormous debts it can really turn student s away from college. Although the prices may have gone up the investment is still something to pursue. â€Å"Even in this economy, college graduates are much better off than high-school graduates. Yes, white-collar employees are losing their jobs. But the unemployment rate for people over twenty five years old who hold at least a bachelor’s degree is 4. 4 percent, compared with 9. 3 percent for the people that age who hold only a high-school diploma, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,† as put by Robin Wilson in A Lifetime of Student Debt, Not likely. Students complain about the large debts they can conjure up during these college years you truly are better off with it. It’s not just about the piece of paper; it’s about the opportunities that it creates. For most people college can be the best time of their lives. You just got to be smart with what you have. Sara M. Harrington (A Lifetime of Student Debt, Not likely) wanted to be smart and looked ahead. She didn’t want to borrow any money that she knew she couldn’t pay back. Some students just want to not worry about any costs and just be done with college and get into the working world not thinking of any consequences. Although some might argue that you shouldn’t think about the future just think about today, you really need to be logical when borrowing money. You shouldn’t let money run your life but it usually does. Another thing to consider is that some of the students coming out with such enormous debts are because they go to private colleges. For some it’s too far out of reach and they choose 3 ommunity colleges and are most of the time they are better off. For me I chose the community college way because I knew my parents could not afford to help me if I went away. Without my parents I wouldn’t be able to go to school, but I know even the payments for school now are hard enough. I could never imagine the burden of private or even state college tuition on my parents. Loans never go away so just be smart with your money a nd borrow less. When growing up teachers, parents, and counselers have always drilled college into your head but did they ever explain why? If asked it was to get a better job or to give your self a better furture than what they have. But maybe college isn’t always about learning but its about finding your self. â€Å"†¦College is not only about learning how to earn a living, .. , but also about learing how to live: how to be an informed and involved citizen, how to communicate effectively, how to understand other cultures and peoples, how to think and reflect† (Ch 14 opening statement). Most people seem to overlook these simple things. College might have the large goal of getting that diploma but its about the experience. You are not only sitting in a classroom but you are figuring out new ways to do the things you love. Not only can you make life long friends but you can learn different backgrounds, try new things, and take any class imaginable. College may seem like a lot of work in the big picture but you can make it fun and worth the experience. Overall College might seem like a lot of work, stress, and debt but it is something that you should enjoy. Not only for the sake of saying â€Å"I went to college† but for bettering 4 yourself. You can come out with so much more life skills just from competing this life step. Every ones ecperience is going to be different, but you are only bettering your self in the end. 5 Works Cited Birkenstein, Cathy, and Russel Durst. â€Å"Chapter 14 Introduction: Is Higher Education Worth the Price? † They Say, I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. By Gerald Graff. 2nd ed. N. p. : W. W. Norton , 2012. 256-73. Print. Wilson, Robin. â€Å"A Lifetime of Student Debt, Not Likey. † They Say, I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 2nd ed. N. p. : W. W. Norton , 2012. 256-73. Print How to cite Student Debt in College, Essays